What are conducting tissues? State the functions of each. Describe elements of xylem.

Xylem and phloem are called the conducting tissues. Xylem is meant to conduct water and mineral salts upward from root to the leaf and give mechanical strength to the plant body. Except wood parenchyma all other xylem elements are lignified thick walled and dead. Phloem as a whole is meant to conduct prepared food material from leaf to the storage organs and the growing regions.

Elements of xylem are (a) Tracheids (b) Vessels or tracheae (c) wood fibres (d) wood parenchyma.

(a)        Tracheids

These are elongated tube like dead cells with hard thick and lignified walls and a large cell cavity. Their ends are commonly tapering or oblique. Their walls are provided with one or more rows of bordered pits. Tracheids may be annular, spiral, scalariform or pitted. In T.S they are angular polygonal or rectangular. Tracheids occur alone in wood of ferms and gymnosperms and in wood of angiosperms. They occur associated with vessels. Being lignified and hard, archeids give strength to the plant body but their main function is conduction of water and mineral salts from root to leaf.

(b)        Vessels or tracheae

Vessels are rows of elongated tube like dead cells placed end to end with their transverse or end walls dissolved. A vessel or trachea is thus is like series of water pipes forming a pipe line. Their walls are thickened in various ways and according to the mode of thickening vessels have received their names such as annular, spiral, scalariform, reticulate and pitted. Some tracheids are attached with vessels. Tracheids and vessels form main elements of wood or xylem of vascular bundle theory. They have large cell cavities which serve for conduction of water and mineral salts from roots to leaves. They are dead thick walled and lignified and serve the mechanical function of strengthening plant body.

(c)        Wood Fibres

Schlerenchymatous cells associated with wood or xylem are known as wood fibres. They are in much amount in woody dicotyledons and add to the mechanical strength of the xylem and the plant body as a whole.

(d)        WOOD PARENCHYMA

Parenchymatous cells associated with xylem together form wood parenchyma. The cells are alive, thin walled and abundant. Wood parenchyma assists directly or indirectly in the conduction of water upwards through vessels and tracheids. It also serves for food storage.

Describe in detain meristematic tissues, Parenchyma tissues, collenchyma tissues and sclerenchyma tissues

Group of cells is called tissue. Group of cells may be similar or dissimilar with common origin and perform identical function.

Meristematic tissue

Meristos = divided. These are composed of cells that are in a state of division or retain the power of dividing. These cells are essentially alike being either spherical, oval or polygonal in shape without any intercellular spaces, their walls thin and homogenous; the protoplasm abundant and active with large nuclei and the vacuoles small or absent.

Meristematic tissues may be apical and lateral. The apical meristem lies at the apex of the stem and the root and gives rise to primary permanent tissues while the lateral meristem e.g.: Cambium lies among masses of permanent tissues and gives rise to secondary permanent tissues.

Permanent Tissues are composed of cells that have lost the power o dividing, having attained their definite form and size. They may be living or dead and thin walled or thick walled. Permanent tissues are formed by differentiation of the cells of the meristems (apical and lateral) and may be primary and secondary.

The primary permanent tissues are derived from the apical meristems of growing region and the secondary permanent tissues from lateral meristems.

(1)        Parencnhyma

It is kind of simple tissue. It consists of collection of cells which are more or less are equally expanded on all sides. Typical parenchymatous cells are oval, spherical or polygonal in shape. Their walls are thin and made up of cellulose. These are living. Parenchyma is of universal occurence in all soft parts of plants. Its function is storage of food material.

It manufactures sugar and starch.

(2)        Collenchyma

This tissue consists of somewhat elongated cells with the corners or intercellular spaces much thickened with a deposit of cellulose and pectin. In T.S of stem cells look circular or oval. Their walls are provided with simple pits. Collenchyma occurs in few layers under the skin (epidermis) of herbaceous dicotyledons e.g.: sunflower and gourd. It is absent from root and monocots. The cells are living and contain some chloroplasts. Being flexible in nature collenchyma gives tensile strength to the stem. It manufactures sugar and starch. Its functions are mechanical and vital.

(3)        Schlerenchyma

Scleros = hard.

Schlerenchyma consists of very long, narrow, thick walled and lignified cells pointed at both ends. They are fibre like and are called schlerenchymatous fibres or simply fibres. They have simple often oblique pits in their walls. These cells are many in number in plants and occur in patches. They are dead cells and serves as mechanical function and give strength and rigidity to plant body and thus enable it to withstand various strains. Their average length is 1 to 3 mm but in fibre yielding plants such as hemp, Indian hemp, Decan hemp, jute. Such fibres are of commercial importance. Sometimes here and there in the plant body special types of sclerenchyma may be developed. These are known as stone or sclerotic cells. Cells are thick walled and are irregular in shape or slightly elongated. Some cells occur in hard seeds, nuts and stony fruits.

Compare the anatomy of Bifacial and Isobilateral leaves

BIFACIAL LEAF:

It is also called dorsiventral leaf. This leaf is more strongly illuminated on upper surface than on lower surface. This unequal illumination induces a difference in the internal structure between upper and lower sides. Its internal structure shows:

(1)        Upper Epidermis

This is single layer of cells with thick cuticle which checks excessive evaporation of water from the surface. It does not contains chloroplasts, stomata are also absent.

(2)        Lower Epidermis

This is also single layer but with a thin cuticle. It bears many stomata, two guard cells of which contain some chloroplast, none are present in the epidermal cells. Internal to each stomata is large cavity called respiratory cavity. Lower epidermis of leaf is meant for exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the atmosphere and the plant body. Excess water also evaporates from lower epidermis.

(3)        Mesophyll

The ground tissue lying between upper epidermis and the lower one is known as mesophyll. It has palisade parenchyma and spongy parenchyma.

(a) Palisade parenchyma consists of one to two or three layers of elongated cylindrical cells closely packed with long axes at right angels to the epidermis. The cells contain many chloroplasts and manufacture sugar and starch in the presence of sunlight.

(b) Spongy parenchyma consists of oval rounded or irregular cells loosely arranged towards the lower epidermis enclosing numerous large intercellular spaces and air cavities. They fit closely around the vein or vascular bundle. Cells contain few chloroplasts. Spongy cells help diffusion of gases by empty spaces left between them. They manufacture sugar and starch to some extent.

(4)        Vascular Bundles

Each vascular bundle (vien) consists of xylem towards the upper epidermis and phloem towards the lower. Xylem has various kinds of vessels (annular and spiral), trachieds, wood fibres and wood parenchyma. Xylem conduct and distributes water and raw food material to different parts of leaf blade.

Phloem consists of some narrow sieve tubes, companion cells and phloem parenchyma. Phloem carries prepared food material from leaf blade to growing and storage regions.

Around each vascular bundle is compact layer of thin walled cells called border parenchyma or bundle sheath. Sclerenchyma occurs as a sheath around bigger bundle or as patches with xylem and phloem.

ISOBILATERAL LEAF:

It is equally illuminated on both sides, (isos = equal, bio = two, lateris = side).

It is also called unifacial or isolateral leaf. Stomata are present in both the epidermal layers and may be called amphistomal leaf. Mesophyll is not differentiated into palisade and spongy tissue but consists of parenchyma cells with chloroplast and inter cellular spaces e.g. maize,.

Upper and lower epidermis in Monocot leaves though are similar in structure, former shows greater variation in structure. It is made up of thin walled compactly arranges cells. In maize bamboo and in many grasses in addition to normal cells there are present groups of bigger cells called bulliform cells or motor cells.

In water plants cells of upper and lower epidermis have chloroplasts. Epidermal cells may also contain wax. In date palm more than one layered epidermis is present.

Mesophyll layers in most of monocot leaves form spongy mass of chlorophyll cells and leaves form spongy mass of chlorophyll cells and have a continuous communication system of intercellular spaces to the outside through the stomata.

On one or both sides of veins there may be present sclerenchymatous patches that continue upto epidermis and are called bundle sheath extensions. Vascular bundles or veins in monocot leaves are arranged in parallel manner. In most cases all the veins are of equal size or they may differ in size in some cases. They have common structure being conjoint collateral and enclosed by a bundle sheath. Xylem is towards the upper side and phloem on lower side. In some cases bundle sheath is 2 layered of which inner layer is sclerenchymatous e.g. wheat.

What is secondary Meristematic Tissue? Describe its role in growth of stems

Secondary meristematic tissues are those which arise as new meristematic in non meristematic or permanent tissue, later at a certain stage of development. Sometimes the permanent tissues develop the power of division and form secondary meristems. Cork cambium forms the typical example of secondary meristem as it is developed from mature cells of epidermis, cortex of pericycle. Secondary meristems are generally lateral in position and give rise to secondary tissues which add to girth of the plant organ. The vascular cambium is stems are partly a secondary meristem. Cambium is a band of thin walled tissue lying between phloem and xylem. Its cells are arranged in radial rows and are roughly rectangular in shape, very small in size and very thin walled. Cambium is responsible for secondary growth in thickness of the plant body.

In study herbs and in all shrubs and trees secondary growth takes place as a result of the formation of new (secondary) tissues in them. Secondary tissues are formed by two meristems cambium in the stellar region and cork cambium formed later in the extra stellar or cortical region. At first a portion of each medullary ray in a line with the cambium becomes meristematic and forms a strip of cambium called interfascicular cambium. 

This joins on to the cambium proper on either side and forms a complete ring known as cambium ring. Secondary growth begins with the activity of this cambium ring. In secondary tissues the cambium ring as a whole begins to cut off new cells both externally and internally. Those cut off on the outer side are gradually modified into the elements of phloem, these constitute secondary phloem. The secondary phloem consists of sieve tubes, also some bands or patches of bast fibres. Many of the textile fibres of commerce such as jute, hemp, flax, rhea (or ramie) etc. are the bast fibres of secondary phloem.

The new cells cut off by the cambium on its inner side are gradually modified into various elements of xylem, these constitute secondary xylem the cambium is always more active on the inner side than on the outer. Xylem increases more rapidly in bulk than phloem and soon forms a hard compact mass occupying the major portion of the stem. Here and there cambium forms some narrow bands of parenchyma running across the stem in the radial direction through secondary xylem and secondary phloem; these are the secondary medullary rays. They are one, two or a few layers in thickness and one to many layers in height.

The activity of cambium increases or decreases according to favourable or unfavourable climatic conditions. In spring cambium becomes more active and forms greater number of vessels with wider cavities while in winter it becomes less active and forms elements of narrower dimensions. There are formed spring wood and autumn wood ant two kinds of wood appear together as concentric ring known as annual rings are formed year after year by the activity of cambium. Each annual rings counts one year growth and by counting total number of annual rings age of plant can be counted.

Sooner or later another meristematic tissue i.e. cork cambium (or phellogen) appears in cortical region. It originates in outer layer of collenchyma. It divides and gives of new cells on both sides. Cork on the outer side and secondary cortex on the inner. The cells of secondary cortex are parenchymatous in nature and often contain chloroplasts.

New cells cut off by cork cambium on outer side are roughly rectangular in shape and soon become suberized. They form the cork of the plant. Cork cells are dead and thick walled and are arranges in few radial rows. Cork is brownish in colour and is impervious to water.

What is vascular bundles, Explain in detail the anatomy of monocot and Dicot stem

Vascular bundles are present in stele. The stele is the central column of Dicot stems and all roots surrounded by endodermis and consist of pericycle, vascular bundles, medullary rays and pith. Each bundle may be made up of both xylem tissue and phloem tissue with a cambium. Vascular bundles conduct water and raw food-material from roots to leaves and preparel food-material from leaves to storage organs and growing regions. Vascular bundles may be regularly arranged in a ring as in stems of most dicotyledons and in all roots, or they may be scattered in the ground tissue as in stems of Monocotyledons.

A vascular bundle of Dicot stem consists of three kinds of tissues (1) Xylem or wood (2) Phloem or bast and (3) Cambium.

Vascular bundles are radial when xylem and phloem form separate bundles lying on different radii alternating with each other as in roots. They are courjomt when xylem and phloem combine into one bundle. Conjomt bundles may collateral when xylem and phloem lie together on the same radius, xylem being internal and phloem external. When in a collateral bundle the cambium is present as in dicot stem, the bundle is said to be open, when cambium is absent it is said to be closed as in Monocot stems.

It is called bicollateral when in a collateral bundle phloem and cambium occur twice, once on the outer side of xylem and then again on its inner side. The sequence is outer phloem, outer cambium, xylem, inner cambium, inner phloem e.g. gourd family. It is always open.

It is called concentric when xylem lies in the centre and is surrounded by phloem as in ferms or phloem lies in the centre and is surrounded by xylem. Concentric bundle is always closed e.g. Dagger plant.

(1)        Dicot Stem

T.S of dicot stem of sunflower shows Epidermis cortex and stele. In stele are vascular bundles in a ring and a large pith.

(i) Epidermis:  This forms outer layer and consists of single row of cells, flattened and fitting closely along their radial walls with well defined cuticle which runs over it. It bears multicellular layers and few stomata.

(ii) Cortex: It lies between epidermis and pericycle and bears hypodermis externally, general cortex centrally and endodermis internally.

Hypodermis (collenchyma) his below epidermis and has 4 to 5 of collenchymatous cells. Cells are living and contain chloroplasts. Internal to hypodermis lays general cortex and has few layers of thin walled large, rounded or oval paranchymatous cells. Endodermis is inner most layer of cortex with barrel shaped cells surrounding the stele.

(iii) Pericycle: This is the region lying in between endodermis and vascular bundles with patches of sclernchyma and masses of parenchyma each patch is associated with phloem of vascular bundle called hard bast.

(iv) Medullary Rays: They lie in between two vascular bundles. They are few layered big polygonal or radially elongated cells.

(v) Pith: This is very large in size. It extends from below vascular bundles to the centre and is composed of rounded or polygonal thin walled living cells with conspicuous intercellular spaces between them.

(vi) Vascular bundles: They are collateral and open and are arranged in a ring. Each bundle bears phloem or bast, cambium and xylem or wood. Phloem is external and has sieve tubes which are larger elements, companion cells which smaller cells associated with sieve tubes and phloem parenchyma which is remaining mass of small cells. All above elements are thin walled and living.

Cambium is band of thin walled tissue lying between phloem and xylem. Its cells are arranged in radial rows and are rectangular in shape, very small in size and thin walled. Cambium is responsible for secondary growth.

Xylem or wood his internally and bears wood vessels which are large lignified thick walled in few radial rows. Smaller vessels lying towards the centre from protoxylem and the bigger one lying away from the centre from metaxylem.

Tracheds and wood fibres are small thick walled and lignified cells lying around meta-xylem vessels and in between them wood parenchyma is patch of thin walled parenchyma which lies on inner side of the bundle surrounding proto-xylem. Its cells are living.

(2)        MONOCOT SYSTEM

T.S of Monocot stem of Maize consists of

(i) Epidermis: This is single outer most layers with thick cuticle on outer surface. Few stomata are present in epidermis.

(ii) Hypodermis (Sclerenchyma): This forms a narrow zone of sclerenchyma two or three layers thick lying below epidermis.

(iii) Ground Tissues: This is continuous mass of thin walled parenchyma extending from below the sclerenchyma to the centre. It is not differentiated into cortex, endodermis, peride etc as in Dicot stem. The cells of ground tissue enclose many intercellular spaces.

(iv) Vascular Bundles: These are collateral and closed and lie scattered in the ground tissue. They are more numerous and lie close together near periphery than the centre. Peripheral ones are also seen to be smaller in size than central ones. Each vascular bundle is oval in outline and is covered by a sheath of sclerenchyma developed on two sides upper and lower. The bundle bears xylem and phloem. Cambium is absent. Xylem consists of distinct vessels arranged in the form of Y and a small number of tracheids arranged irregularly. 

Two small vessels (annual or and spiral) lying radially towards the centre form proto-xylem and two bigger vessels (pitted) lying laterally together them form meta-xylem. Besides thin walled wood (or xylem) parenchyma surround water containing cavity protoxylem and few wood fibres phloem bears sieve tubes and companion cells. No phloem parenchyma is present in Monocot stem. Outer portion of phloem which is a broken mass is protophloem and inner portion Metaphloem. The former soon gets disorganised and the latter shows distinct sieve tubes and companion cells. 

What is tissue? Describe various kinds of simple tissue

Tissue is group cells of the same type or of mixed type having common origin and performing an identical function. Tissues may be meristematic and permanent.

A simple tissue is made up of one type of cells forming homogenous or wniform mass.

Simple tissue is of three kinds i.e. Parenchyma, Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma.

(1)        Parenchyma

Parenchyma consists of a collection of cells which are more or less equally expanded on all sides. Typical parenchymatous cells are oval, spherical or polygonal in shape. Their cells are thin and made of cellulose. They are usually living. Parenchyma is of universal occurance in all  soft parts of plants. Its function is mainly storage of food material.

Parenchyma containing chloroplasts often called chlorenchyma, manufactures sugar and starch. Star like parenchyma with radiating arms leaving a lot of air cavities is called acrenchyma, as in the petiole of banana and canna and also in many aquatic plants.

(2)        Collenchyma

This tissue consists of somewhat elongated cells with corners or intercellular spaces much thickened with a deposit of cellulose and pectin. In T.S of stem the cells look circular or oval. Their walls are provided with simple pits. Collenchyma occurs in few layers under the skin (epidermis) of herbaceous dicotyledons e.g.: sunflower, gourd etc. It is absent from the root and monocotyledons except in special cases. The cells are living and often contain some chloroplasts. Being flexible in nature collenchyma gives tensile strength to the stem. Containing chloroplasts it also manufactures sugar and starch. Its functions are both mechanical and vital.

(3)        Schlerenchyma

Schlerenchyma consists of very long, narrow, thick walled and lignified cells, usually pointed at both ends. They are fibre like in appearance and hence they are also called schlerenchymatous fibres or simply fibres. They have simple often oblique pits in their walls. The middle Lamella is conspicuous in schlerenchyma. Schlerenchymatous cells are found abundantly in plants and occur in patches or definite layers. They are dead cells and serve purely mechanical function. They give strength and rigidity to the plant body and thus enable it to withstand some strains. Their average length is 1 to 3 mm but in fibre yielding plants such as hemp and Jute these cells may be of excessive length ranging from 20 mm to 550 mm. Such fibres are of commercial importance.

Sometimes here and there in the plant body special types of schlerenchyma may be developed. These are known as stone or sclerotic cells. The cells are vary thick walled and strongly lignified and are mostly irregular in shape or slightly elongated. Stone cells occur in hard seeds, nuts and stone fruits. They contribute to the firmness and hardness of the part concerned. The flesh of pear is gritty because of the presence of stone cells in it.

What are conducting tissues? State the functions of each. Describe elements of xylem

Xylem and phloem are called the conducting tissues. Xylem is meant to conduct water and mineral salts upward from root to the leaf and give mechanical strength to the plant body. Except wood parenchyma all other xylem elements are lignified thick walled and dead. Phloem as a whole is meant to conduct prepared food material from leaf to the storage organs and the growing regions.

Elements of xylem are (a) Tracheids (b) Vessels or tracheae (c) wood fibres (d) wood parenchyma.

(a)        Tracheids

These are elongated tube like dead cells with hard thick and lignified walls and a large cell cavity. Their ends are commonly tapering or oblique. Their walls are provided with one or more rows of bordered pits. Tracheids may be annular, spiral, scalariform or pitted. In T.S they are angular polygonal or rectangular. Tracheids occur alone in wood of ferms and gymnosperms and in wood of angiosperms. They occur associated with vessels. Being lignified and hard, archeids give strength to the plant body but their main function is conduction of water and mineral salts from root to leaf.

(b)        Vessels or tracheae

Vessels are rows of elongated tube like dead cells placed end to end with their transverse or end walls dissolved. A vessel or trachea is thus is like series of water pipes forming a pipe line. Their walls are thickened in various ways and according to the mode of thickening vessels have received their names such as annular, spiral, scalariform, reticulate and pitted. Some tracheids are attached with vessels. Tracheids and vessels form main elements of wood or xylem of vascular bundle theory. They have large cell cavities which serve for conduction of water and mineral salts from roots to leaves. They are dead thick walled and lignified and serve the mechanical function of strengthening plant body.

(c)        Wood Fibres

Schlerenchymatous cells associated with wood or xylem are known as wood fibres. They are in much amount in woody dicotyledons and add to the mechanical strength of the xylem and the plant body as a whole.

(d)        WOOD PARENCHYMA

Parenchymatous cells associated with xylem together form wood parenchyma. The cells are alive, thin walled and abundant. Wood parenchyma assists directly or indirectly in the conduction of water upwards through vessels and tracheids. It also serves for food storage.

Scleros = hard.

Schlerenchyma consists of very long, narrow, thick walled and lignified cells pointed at both ends. They are fibre like and are called schlerenchymatous fibres or simply fibres. They have simple often oblique pits in their walls. These cells are many in number in plants and occur in patches. They are dead cells and serves as mechanical function and give strength and rigidity to plant body and thus enable it to withstand various strains. Their average length is 1 to 3 mm but in fibre yielding plants such as hemp, Indian hemp, Decan hemp, jute. Such fibres are of commercial importance. Sometimes here and there in the plant body special types of sclerenchyma may be developed. These are known as stone or sclerotic cells. Cells are thick walled and are irregular in shape or slightly elongated. Some cells occur in hard seeds, nuts and stony fruits.

Describe in detain meristematic tissues, Parenchyma , collenchyma and sclerenchyma tissues.

Group of cells is called tissue. Group of cells may be similar or dissimilar with common origin and perform identical function.

Meristematic tissue

Meristos = divided. These are composed of cells that are in a state of division or retain the power of dividing. These cells are essentially alike being either spherical, oval or polygonal in shape without any intercellular spaces, their walls thin and homogenous; the protoplasm abundant and active with large nuclei and the vacuoles small or absent.

Meristematic tissues may be apical and lateral. The apical meristem lies at the apex of the stem and the root and gives rise to primary permanent tissues while the lateral meristem e.g.: Cambium lies among masses of permanent tissues and gives rise to secondary permanent tissues.

Permanent Tissues are composed of cells that have lost the power o dividing, having attained their definite form and size. They may be living or dead and thin walled or thick walled. Permanent tissues are formed by differentiation of the cells of the meristems (apical and lateral) and may be primary and secondary.

The primary permanent tissues are derived from the apical meristems of growing region and the secondary permanent tissues from lateral meristems.

(1)        Parencnhyma

It is kind of simple tissue. It consists of collection of cells which are more or less are equally expanded on all sides. Typical parenchymatous cells are oval, spherical or polygonal in shape. Their walls are thin and made up of cellulose. These are living. Parenchyma is of universal occurence in all soft parts of plants. Its function is storage of food material.

It manufactures sugar and starch.

(2)        Collenchyma

This tissue consists of somewhat elongated cells with the corners or intercellular spaces much thickened with a deposit of cellulose and pectin. In T.S of stem cells look circular or oval. Their walls are provided with simple pits. Collenchyma occurs in few layers under the skin (epidermis) of herbaceous dicotyledons e.g.: sunflower and gourd. It is absent from root and monocots. The cells are living and contain some chloroplasts. Being flexible in nature collenchyma gives tensile strength to the stem. It manufactures sugar and starch. Its functions are mechanical and vital.

(3)        Schlerenchyma

Scleros = hard.

Schlerenchyma consists of very long, narrow, thick walled and lignified cells pointed at both ends. They are fibre like and are called schlerenchymatous fibres or simply fibres. They have simple often oblique pits in their walls. These cells are many in number in plants and occur in patches. They are dead cells and serves as mechanical function and give strength and rigidity to plant body and thus enable it to withstand various strains. Their average length is 1 to 3 mm but in fibre yielding plants such as hemp, Indian hemp, Decan hemp, jute. Such fibres are of commercial importance. Sometimes here and there in the plant body special types of sclerenchyma may be developed. These are known as stone or sclerotic cells. Cells are thick walled and are irregular in shape or slightly elongated. Some cells occur in hard seeds, nuts and stony fruits.

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Vanessa Hudgens

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Vanessa Hudgens Without Makeup

Vanessa Hudgens Without Makeup

Vanessa Hudgens Without Makeup

Vanessa Hudgens Without Makeup

Vanessa Hudgens Without Makeup

Vanessa Hudgens Without Makeup

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Jennifer Aniston Without Makeup

Jennifer Aniston Without Makeup

Jennifer Aniston Without Makeup

Jennifer Aniston Without Makeup

Jennifer Aniston Without Makeup

Jennifer Aniston Without Makeup

Jennifer Aniston Without Makeup

Jennifer Aniston Without Makeup

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Katy Perry Without Makeup

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Blake Lively Without Makeup

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Olivia Wilde Without Makeup

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Olivia Wilde Without Makeup

Olivia Wilde Without Makeup

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Olivia Wilde Without Makeup