Cloud Of The Doubt

In this paper we consider one of the situations in which to enter the market is not recommended. I called this time «a cloud of doubt». Typically, the cloud is formed by passing the important points of resistance / support or clash of bulls and bears. Or when is not clear where to move the market. Let's try together to understand this situation and not get «elk». Let one of the few such situations. And a recent review of Perforation resistance 1.2940. I explain how I found this resistance, as many traders look for the data in different projections, etc., at a time when everyone can easily find this level, I even have to say - is required to be able to find. Well move on to the case.

Weekly schedule:



We see from the left point, the box in the red circle, it is just above the maxima will be located an emotional level of resistance to 10P smaller, more does not matter, microscopic precision is not necessary. So we found our resistance.

The second circle is our place for research. Many will say to say that for easy stories to tell and analyze the past already. Say - «show better, where will tomorrow evra?». I have an answer to this question. I say - I do not know. I always go for the price, but do not predict it, where it will be tomorrow, in five minutes, after a week or a year.

So, continue. Switching to a shorter period - for full-time schedule.

For further analysis we will use the 5 tools. SMA (21), SMA (180), Stohastic (7,10,3), Parabolic SAR and MACD Siberian standard settings.

On the day seeing all the signs of a turn upward trend. MACD gave a signal to sell it proves that the mood of the crowd at the station, Stochastics also had confirmation - leave the area perekuplennosti thereby signaling the beginning of sales.

Got to two false signals from different indicators. What conclusion?

Close to such levels do not trust these indicators? - Of course not.

Parabolika, short and long, medium, showed a steady upward trend.

There was a breakthrough because even a short sliding.

Especially at this site parabolika was under the protection, ie for short-medium. And it said that the trend is protected. Why do so many traders selling at this level, for me personally - it is not clear.

I think that at this level of sales could perform only after a brief breakdown rolling and changing rate parabolika. It thus would be a confirmation signal from the indicators on early sales. This one could finish the talk, laugh, and show the finger at those who have had the imprudence to sell here. But the depth and go on. If you carefully consider the candles that surrounded by a red circle, you will find a variety of false turning combinations.

That is what I call «The big cloud of doubt». Then explain why so called it.

Four schedule


Consider now the site for 4ch and 1h schedules.

At 4ch graphics on this site has been noticed several bear MACD-divergence, any MACD-Histogram hill after a large, bear seen as a signal for the sales, Stochastics had confirmation of these signals, a total of about 3 diversification, I would like to note that srabotki enough good, profit can be caught with the right approach, well now we do not know. To explain this behavior of the crowd easily. At these sites the crowd divided into two categories: those who work on the samples, and those of a breakthrough. Bears are looking for a signal to any sale of bulls and of the signals to buy. When leaving the price for resistance, traders, playing to return to the channel, considering diversification MASD and Stochastics signal the beginning of sales, and drive the price to have the so-called support. There they are happy to meet with the bulls to perceive touch on the support price as a signal to buy - on the rebound. "

That's the beginning and the chaos of battle between the bulls and bears. This is again - "a cloud of doubt."

At the station an active mood, a lot of sales and a lot of shopping. Here every doubt, think how not to miss a turn and a more advantageous position to enter, hence the name.

So when will we enter into the market? - You ask.

There are two options.

Option 1:

You can settle with the bear diversification MACD (I noted them with red circles - this is a confirmation 4ch divergence, and more accurate input.), So you go along with the bears, who think that this is a false break. But because we dodge the crowds, and we will go in a collision with the bulls. (The points of collision with the bulls, it signals that the bulls take to buy, then we will consider)

2.Mozhete enter the tangency points of the long moving average (they are marked by green circles), is a foot lower than the resistance.

The points of collision bears and bulls, and there - "the clouds of doubt."

Time schedule:


During the symposium leave. See you soon.
Tolstykh profit and wicked moose

In this paper we consider one of the situations in which to enter the market is not recommended. I called this time «a cloud of doubt». Typically, the cloud is formed by passing the important points of resistance / support or clash of bulls and bears. Or when is not clear where to move the market. Let's try together to understand this situation and not get «elk». Let one of the few such situations. And a recent review of Perforation resistance 1.2940. I explain how I found this resistance, as many traders look for the data in different projections, etc., at a time when everyone can easily find this level, I even have to say - is required to be able to find. Well move on to the case.

Get your bookkeeping done at half the cost and half the pressure!

Bookkeeping is one of those business activities that can’t be ignored no matter how mundane and uninteresting it is. It is one of the quintessential things for accounts. Incorrect bookkeeping will result in inaccurate accounts books. This would ensue a whole needle in a haystack kind of game which will eventually point to some silly error in the bookkeeping entry.   Was the search worth it?


Absolutely not.  Something that silly could have been avoided if the business owner was paying attention to the bookkeeping. A rookie mistake like this has cost a lot of time and not to mention, extra billable hours. It is entirely self defeating to be doing bookkeeping yourself and to need an accountant/bookkeeper to clear the mess later on. It costs more and is not free from pressure.

Here is how you can get your bookkeeping done at lesser cost

If you haven’t heard of Outsourced bookkeeping services, it is of no surprise that you are still struggling with bookkeeping. This is one way where you can get a bookkeeper to do your task and pay less for it. How is it possible?

The difference in currency value allows you to get bookkeeping help for cheap in countries like India and Philippines. The person assigned to your task is a qualified bookkeeper. You can be sure that he/she is someone with a degree in accounting. They work for you because you are likely to be paying better than what they would get in their city.

You as a business owner will benefit greatly from the cost savings. Outsourced services such as this one will cost you less than half of what a bookkeeper will cost you in your city. This is indeed the best way to get bookkeeping done on a budget.

What is animal systematic and describe classification of organization

Animal Systematics:

The goal of animal systematics is to arrange animals into group, that reflect evolutionary relationship.

Monophyletic group: When groups include single ancestral species and all of its descendents such a group is called monophyletic group, in searching out monophyletic groups, taxonomists look for animal attributes called characters that indicate relatedness.

Character: A character is virtually anything that has a genetic basis and can be measured from an anatomical feature to a sequence of nitrogenous bases in DNA or RNA.

Polyphyletic groups: They have members that can be traced to separate ancestors. Since each group should have single ancestor, a polyphyletic group reflects insufficient knowledge of the group.

Paraphyletic group: It includes some, but not all, members of a lineage. Paraphyletic groups result when knowledge of the group is insufficient.

Evolutionary Systematics: It is the oldest of three approaches. It is also called traditional approach. A basic assumption of evolutionary systematics is that organisms closely related to an ancestor will resemble that ancestor more closely than they resemble distantly related organisms. Two kinds of similarities between organisms are recognized.

(1) Homologies are resemblances that result from common ancestry and are useful in classifying animals. Example is the similar arrangement of bones in the wing of a bird and the arm of human.

(2) Analogies are resemblances that result from organisms adapting under similar evolutionary pressures. This process is sometimes called convergent evolution. Analogies do not reflect common ancestry and are not used in animal taxonomy e.g. similarity between wings of birds and insects in an analogy. Evolutionary systematics often portray the results of their work on phylogenetic trees where organisms are grouped according to their evolutionary relationships.

Numerical Taxonomy: It emerged during 1950s and 1960s and represents opposite end of the spectrum from evolutionary systematics. The founders of numerical taxonomy believed that the criteria for grouping taxa had become too arbitrary. They tried to make taxonomy more objective.

Taxonomists use mathematical models and compute aided techniques to group samples of organisms according to overall similarity. They do not attempt to distinguish between homologies and analogies. Difference between evolutionary systematic and numerical taxonomy is that numerical taxonomists limit discussion of evolutionary relationships to closely related taxa. Numerical taxonomy is the least popular of three taxonomic schools. However; all taxonomists use compute programme that numerical taxonomists developed.

Phylogenetic Systematics: It is third approach to animal systematic. The goal of cladistics is similar to evolutionary systematics the generation of hypotheses of genealogical relationships among monophyletic groups of organisms. Cladists contend that their methods are more open to analysis and testing and thus are more scientific, than those of evolutionary systematics.

Like evolutionary systematics, cladists differentiate between homologous and analogies. They believe that homologies of recent origin are most useful in phylogenetic studies.

Symplesiomorphies: Characters that all members of a group share are referred to as symplesiomorphies. (sym=together+plesio=near+morphe=form).

These characters are homologues that may indicate a shared ancestry but they are useless in describing relationships within the group.

Out group: To decide what character is ancestral from a group of organisms. Cladists look for a related group of organisms called an out group that are included in the study group.

Synapomorphies: Characters that have arisen since common ancestry with the out group are called derived characters or synopomorphies (syn=together, apo=away and morphe=form).

Cladogram: A cladogram is interpreted as a family tree depicting a hypothesis regarding monphyletic lineages. New data is the form of newly investigated characters or reinterpretation of old data are used to test the hypothesis, the cladogram describes. The tumicates and cephalochordates are an out group for the entire vertebrate lineage. Derived characters are

(1) Extra embryonic membrane is a synapomorphy used to define the clade containing the reptiles, birds and mammals and absent in any of the fish taxa or the amphibians.

(2) Derived characters, the shell, distinguishes turtles, from all other members of the clade

(3) Skill characters distinguish the lizard/crocodile bird lineage from the mammal lineage

(4) and haris, mammary glands and endothermy is a unique mammalian character combination. A synapomorphy at one level of taxonomy may be a symplesiomorphy at different levels of taxonomy. Extra embryonic membrane is synapomorphic for reptiles, birds and mammals because it is ancestral for the clade and cannot be used to distinguish among members of these three groups. Zoologists widely accept cladistcs. This acceptance has resulted in some non traditional interpretations of animal phylogeny. Generations of taxonomists assigned class level status (Aves) to birds and reptilian to reptiles.

Cladistic analysis: It has show that birds are more closely tried by common ancestry to alligators and crocodiles than to any other group.

According to cladistics interpretation birds and crocodiles should be assigned to a group that reflects this close common ancestry. Birds would become a subgroup within larger group that included both birds and reptiles. Crocodiles would be depicted more closely related to birds than they would be to snakes and lizards.

Traditional evolutionary systematics maintain that the traditional interpretation is still correct because it takes into account the greater importance of key characters of birds (e.g. feathers and endothermy) that make the group unique. Cladists support their position by pointing out that the designation of key characters involves value judgments that cannot be tested. Debates are the fuel that force scientists to examine old assumptions. Animal systematics is certain to be lively and exciting field in future years.

What do you know about kingdoms of life

In 1969, Whittaker described a system of classification that distinguished between kingdom according to cellular organization and mode of nutrition. According to this system members of kingdom monera are bacteria and cyanobacteria. They are prokaryotes members of kingdom protista are eukaryotic and consist of single cells or colonies of cells. Members of kingdom plantae are eukaryotic, multi-cellular and photosynthetic. Plants have walled cells and are usually non motile. Members of kingdom fungi are also eukaryotic and multi-cellular. They also have walled cells and are usually non motile. Fungi are decomposers. Members of kingdom animalia are eukaryotic and multi-cellular and they usually feed by ingesting other organisms or parts of other organisms. Their cells lack walls and they are usually motile.

For the first two billion years of life on the earth, living forms were prokaryotic microbes. Molecular studies of variations in base sequences of ribosomal RNA from more than two thousand organisms are providing evidence of relationship rooted within this two billion year period. Emerging picture is that five kingdoms do not represent distinct evolutionary lineages.

Evolutionary Conservation: Ribosomal RNA is excellent for studying the evolution of early life on earth. It is an ancient molecule and it is present and retains its function in virtually all organisms. In addition ribosomal RNA changes very slowly. This showness of change is called evolutionary conservation. It indicates that the protein producing machinery of a cell can tolerate little change and still retain its vital function. Closely related organisms (recently diverged from a common ancestory) are likely to have similar ribosomal RNAs. Distantly related organisms have ribosomal RNAs that are less similar but the differences are small enough that the relationship to some ancestral molecules are still apparent.

Method: Molecular systematic compare the base sequences in ribosomal RNA of different organisms to find the number of positions in RNAs where bases are different. They enter these data into computer programmes and examine all possible relationships among different organisms. The systematic then decide which arrangement of the organisms best explains the data.

Conclusion: Studies of ribosomal RNA have let systematic to the conclusion that all life shares a common ancestor and that there are three major evolutionary lineages. Each of these lineage is called domain. Archara are prokaryotic microbes that live in extreme environments such as high temperature rift valleys on the ocean floor or high salt or acidic environments. They environments may reflect conditions on the earth at the time of life’s origin. The archara are the most primitive life forms known. Ancient archaras gave rise to two other domains of organisms Eubacteria and Eukarya. Eubacteria are true bacteria and are prokaryotic micro-organisms. Eukarya include all eukaryotic organisms eukaraya diverged more recently related to Archara than Eubacteria to Archara.

Eubacteria to Archara:

Eukarya arose about 1.5 billion years ago. Photosynthetic accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere probably resulted in the production of ozone which shielded the planet from ultra violet light. Eukarya then underwent late, but raid, evolutionary diversification into modern lineages of protests, fungi, plants and animals.

What is fiscal policy? Discuss in brief the main objectives of fiscal policy

Fiscal policy is the deliberate change in government spending and taxes to stimulate or slow down the economy. In the words of F. R. Glahe “By fiscal policy is meant the regulation of the level of government expenditure and taxation to achieve full employment without inflation in the economy.” J. M. Keynes describes fiscal policy as the stearing wheel for the aggregate economy.

Main objectives of Fiscal Policy:

The objectives of fiscal policy differ with the state of development in the country. In advanced countries of the world, the goal of fiscal policy may be the maintenance of full employment without inflation. In developing countries the objectives of fiscal policy may be to achieve maximum level of employment and reduction economic inequalities. However the main objectives of fiscal policy are in brief as under.

1.         Removing deflationary gap: J. M. Keynes is of the view that fiscal policy can play a major role in lifting the economy out of depression and closing the deflationary gap. When the economy is a depression, it is faced with rising unemployment falling income, severe declining investment and shrinking of economic activities. The government by undertaking public works programme increases its expenditure which helps in raising the level of aggregate demand of employment in the economy. The government can also induce changes in aggregate investment by reduction of taxes, tax, relieves, abolition of sales tax, reducing excise duties etc. The tax relief measures are also an effective method to raise the level of aggregate demand and removing deflationary gap from the economy.

2)         Fiscal policy in Inflation: If the economy of a country is faced with inflationary gap, then anti-cyclical fiscal policies should be adopted to bring down the prices and for closing the inflationary gaps. The main fiscal measures to bring down the excess demand in the economy are (i) Reduction in government expenditure (ii) Increase in taxes and (iii) Creating a budget surplus. By adopting contractionary fiscal policy, the aggregated demand curve shifts downward, and the economy begins to operate at the desired potential level of income.

3)         Counter Cyclical fiscal policy: Another important objective of fiscal policy is to minimize the fluctuations in aggregate demand so that the economy is always at its target and potential level of income. The fluctuations in the economy which are associated with the business cycles can be smoothed in a number of ways. For example when the aggregate demand rises rapidly in the expansionary phase of the business cycle, it can be tuned by reducing government expenditure or raising taxes. This will help in dampening down the expansionary phase. In the recessionary phase the problem of unemployment and low growth can be covered and remedied by cutting taxes and raising government expenditure. If timely counter cyclical fiscal measure is adopted the problems of excess or deficiency of demand will never be severe and economy operates at the potential level of income which is called fine tuning.

4)         Equilibrium in balance of payment: The level of national income is also affected by the balance of payments position of the country. If the country has a favourable balance of payments it will lead to increase in income. This rise in aggregate demand will shift the demand line upward and will increase the level of national income. The all in the balance of payments has effect. The government uses fiscal policy in such a way that the balance of payments remains in equilibrium in the short run.

5)         Economic Growth: The elements of Keynes fiscal policy were developed in 1930’s. Since then, the Keynesian fiscal policy is in action. The economists believe even now that if the economy is operating below its potential level, the increase in government expenditure and cut in taxes is the perfect medicine to bring the economy back to its full employment level. The economist’s stress that government should encourage investment to increase the rate of capital formation by using timely proper fiscal measures. The government borrowing for financing schemes of development, the increase in ratio of savings to national income, cut in taxes to increase investment spending can accelerate the rate of capital for nation in the country and lead to economic growth.

Small business owners: Get your bookkeeping done the smart way!

Small business owners are a lot of times strapped for cash. This has to do with the fact that investment is lesser than the amount of work which has to be done in the day. It is a fairly common sight to see small business owners doing the work of three or more people. In short, business owners try to do all that they can if it saves them in cost of hiring a person.

This is understandable and a clever strategy for most things but time consuming activities such as bookkeeping. It is true that bookkeeping is not rocket science. However, it is also largely accepted to be a mundane and time consuming activity. A business owner who is already pressed for time is totally frustrated when they realize that they have to spend a few hours on bookkeeping. They can’t help but think of the several other things they could have accomplished in the time spent doing bookkeeping inefficiently. That said all small business owners don’t always suffer from this problem. Some seek out the clever solution of bookkeeping outsourcing

“Bookkeeping outsourcing has allowed me to get my books done on a budget”

You will hear a lot of things being said on the same lines. Anyone who has successfully tried bookkeeping outsourcing services will never go back to getting it done in their city. Why? The cost benefit is fantastic given that it costs less than half of what it costs locally. Also the quality of work is on par with what you get in the city. Why would anyone pay more then?

If you haven’t tried this option, you really ought to let go of all the apprehension and give it a shot. Chances are that you will never be burdened by bookkeeping again.

Define Budget also the difference parts of expenditure of federal budget

Budget of a government a statement of its finances for a particular year. It indicates how the government or a public body concerned proposes to raise its revenue and incur its expenditure. If the expenditure happens to be in excess of revenue, the government state how the gap is to be met through raising various types’ taxes or loans.

A government in Pakistanwhether federal or provincial, has two sections of budget (1) Revenue budget (2) Capital budget. The revenue budget is concerned with the current needs and functions of government like defence, civil administration, judicial services, police and beneficent activities in the field of education, health, agriculture etc.

The capital budget of the government is concerned with building of lasting works of a capital nature, like irrigation, canals, dams, roads and other constructions.

Major Expenditure Heads of the Federal Budget:

As we know that Public Expenditure may be (i) Development Expenditure which is shown in the Capital Budget or what may be called Development Budget. The expenditure in the Revenue Budget is mostly Non-Development Expenditure. The major heads of expenditure are discussed below.

i) Debt Services: Under this head are included interest on debt and other obligations and provision for reduction and avoidance of debt. This expenditure has been on the increase.

ii) Defence Services: The next to debt services comes the most important spending deparnent of Federal Government and takes away a high proportion of its total is defence services.

iii) Development Expenditure or ADP: The Annual Development Programme of the Government in the Public 

Sector has following objectives.

a) To consolidate investment level.

b) To bring about improvement in the standard of living of the common man.

c) To build up social and physical infrastructure, particularly the efficient transport and communication system which can help in achieving the objectives of balanced development and integration of the economy.

d) To enlarge employment opportunities by identifying areas in which labour intensive intermediate technology can be effectively used.

e) To give maximum push to agriculture as well as to industries serving it and based on it.

f) To accelerate the pace of development in the less developed areas.

g) To make provision for implementing policies in the field of health, education labour and wages.

h) To implement people’s works and other rural development programmes.

Within this framework ADP seeks.

1) To earmark more funds for major on going projects such as Motorway and power projects.

2) To protect the requirement of agricultural inputs which yield quick returns?

3) To expand the water logging and salinity control work in view of its importance for agricultural development.

direct and indirect taxes, give examples and examine their comparative advantages and disadvantages

Direct Tax: A tax is said to be direct when impact and incidence of a tax are on one and same person i.e. when a person on who tax is levied is the same who finally bears the burden of tax. For instance income tax is a direct tax because impact and incidence falls on the same person.

Advantages of Direct Tax: Following are advantages of direct tax.

1. Direct taxes afford a greater degree of progression. They are therefore more equitable.

2. They entail less expense on collection and as such are economical.

3. They satisfy canons of certainty, elasticity productivity and simplicity.

4. They create civic consciousness in people. When a person has to bear burden of tax, he takes active interest in affairs of state.

Disadvantages of Direct Tax: Disadvantages of direct tax are as follows:

1. It is easy to evade a direct tax than an indirect tax. Tax payer is seldom happy when he pays tax. It pinches him that his hard earned money is being taken by government. So he often submits false statements of his income and thus tries to evade tax. Direct tax is in fact a tax of honesty.

2. Direct tax is very inconvenient because tax payer has to prepare lengthy statements of his income and expenditure. He has to keep a record of his income up to date throughout the year. It is very laborious for tax payer to prepare and keep these records.

3. Direct tax is to be paid in lump sum every year while income which a person earns is received in small amounts. It often becomes difficult by tax payer to pay large amounts in one instalment.

Indirect Taxes: Indirect taxes are those taxes which are paid in the first instance by one person and then are shifted to some other persons. The impact is on one person but the incidence is on another person. For example sale tax on saleable articles is usually an indirect tax because it can be shifted onto the customers.

Advantages of Indirect Tax: Advantages of indirect taxes are as under.

1. It is not possible to evade indirect tax. The only way to avoid this tax is not to by taxed commodities.

2. They are more convenient because they are wrapped in prices. Customer does not know often that he is paying tax.

3. Every member of the society contributes something towards the revenue of the state.

4. Indirect tax is also elastic to a certain extent. State can increase its revenue with in limits by increasing rates of taxes.

5. If state wishes to discourage consumption of intoxicants and harmful drugs, it can raise their prices by taxing them. This is a great social advantage which a community can achieve from tax.

Disadvantages of Indirect Tax: Disadvantages of indirect tax are as under.

1. A very serious objection levelled against indirect taxation is that it is regressive in character. It is inequitable. Burden of tax falls on poor people than rich.

2. Indirect tax is also uneconomical. State has to spend large amounts of money on collection of indirect taxes.

3. Revenue from indirect taxes is uncertain. State cannot correctly estimate as to how much money it will receive from this tax.

4. An indirect tax is wrapped in prices; therefore, it does not create civic consciousness.

5. If goods produced by manufacturers are taxed at higher rates, it hampers trade and industry and causes widespread unemployment in the country.

What are the various Canons or Principles of taxation followed by the modern government

Adam Smith, the father of modern political economy has laid down four principles or canon of taxation in his famous book “Wealth of Nations”. These principles are still considered to be the starting point of sound public finance. Adam Smith’s celebrated canons of taxation are:

(1) Canon of equality or ability.

(2) Canon of certainty

(3) Canon of convenience

(4) Canon of economy

(5) Other canons.

These canons of taxation are described as under.

1)         Canon of equality or ability: Canon of equality or ability is considered to be a very important canon of taxation. By equality we do not mean that people should pay equal amount by way of taxes to the government. By equality is meant equality of all sacrifice, which is people, should pay taxes in proportion to their incomes. This principles point to progressive taxation. It states that the rate of percentage of taxation should increase with increase in income and decrease with decrease in income. In the words of Adam Smith “The subject of every state of ought to contribute towards the support of the government as early as possible in the proportion to their respective abilities that is in proportion to the revenue which they respectively enjoy under the protection of the state.”

2)         Canon of certainty: The canon of certainty implies that there should be certainty with regard to the amount which tax payer is called upon to pay during the financial year. If the tax payer is definite and certain about the amount of the tax and its time of payment, he can adjust his income to his expenditure.

The state also benefits from this principle, because it will be able to know roughly in advance the total amount which it is going to obtain and the time when it will be at its disposal. If there is an element of arbitrariness in a tax, it will then encourage misuse of power and corruption. Adam Smith in this connection remarks, “The tax which each individual is bound to pay ought to be certain and not arbitrary. The time of payment the manner of payment, the quantity to be paid all ought to be clear and plain to the contributor and to every other person.”

3)         Canon of convenience: By this canon, Adam Smith means that the tax should be levied at the time and the manner which is most convenient for the contributor to pay it. For instance, if tax on agriculture land is collected in instalments after the crop is harvested, it will be very convenient for the agriculturists to pay it. Similarly property tax, house tax, income tax etc should be realised at a time when tax payer is expected to receive income. The manner of payment of tax should also be convenient. If the tax is payable by cheques, the contributor will be saved from much inconvenience. In the words of Adam Smith “Every tax ought to be levied at the time or in the manner in which it is most likely to be convenient for the contributor to pay it.”

4)         Canon of economy: The canon of economy implies that the expenses of collection of taxes should not be excessive. They should be kept as little as possible consistent with administration efficiency. If the government appoints highly salaried staff and absorbs major portion of the yield, the tax will be considered uneconomical. Tax will also be regard as uneconomical if it checks the growth of capital or cause to immigrate to other countries. In the words of Adam Smith, “Every tax is to be so contrived as both to take out and keep out of pockets of the people as little as possible over and above what it brings into the public treasury of the state.”

5)         Other canons: Some writers on Public Finance have formulated four other important principles of taxation. They in brief are as follows.

(i) Canon of productivity: The canon of productivity indicates that a tax when levied should produce sufficient revenue to the government. If a few taxes imposed yield a sufficient fund for the state, then they should be preferred over a large number of small taxes which produce less revenue and are expensive in collection.

(ii) Canon of elasticity: Canon of elasticity states that the tax system should be fairly elastic so that if at any time the government is in need of more funds, it should increase its financial resources without incurring any additional cost of collection. Income tax, railway fares, postal rates etc are very good examples of elastic tax. The government by raising these rates a little can easily means its rising demand for revenue.

(iii) Canon of simplicity: Canon of simplicity implies that the tax system should be fairly simple, plain and intelligible to the tax payer. If it is complicated and difficult to understand, then it will lead to oppression and corruption.

 
(iv) Canon of diversity: Canon of diversity says that the system of taxation should include a large number of taxes which are economical. The government should collect revenue from its citizens by levying direct and indirect taxes. Variety in taxation is desirable from the point of view of equity, yield and stability.

Would you love it if you got bookkeeping services at your rates?

Now this is something a lot of business owners would die for. Bookkeeping is one of those things that really come in the way of having more time for business, at least in the beginning stages. First off, it is assumed to be very simple. It is said to be simple enough that you need not hire a bookkeeper to do the job. This is what gets most business owners into trouble.

It is not as simple as it looks!

The crux of bookkeeping is nothing but recording of expenses and income with documents to back the transactions. It is not rocket science. However, things get complicated when there is software involved. Let’s face it. A lot of us are not software savvy. We are maybe good at many tasks but software could baffle us and leave us struggling. Most of today’s bookkeeping is software based. What’s worse is that popular bookkeeping software is designed for bookkeepers and accountants rather than lay people. Hence if a bookkeeper were to learn the ropes of bookkeeping, he/she is going to have to struggle quite a bit.

Hiring a bookkeeper is not an option for many

This is understandable given that there are obvious budget constraints with small businesses. Also, there are always more urgent expenses to attend to. However, all is not lost with hiring a bookkeeper when you can take up bookkeeping outsourcing services with a credible outsourcing company.

Yes, you read right. There are companies today that offer bookkeeping outsourcing services. It functions like any outsourcing service. You need not worry about the costs and the risks. There are systems in place to assure you that your financial data is safe and in the best hands they could be.

The benefits are immense, the cost savings being the biggest one. Next to that comes flexibility. You are paying the bookkeeper only for the amount of time (hours) they spent on your task.

All in all this is the smartest way to get bookkeeping done on a budget. 

Are you in a “bookkeeping fix”?

Are you frustrated that you have to take care of your books of accounts yourself?

A lot of business owners are required to manage their bookkeeping themselves in an attempt to save costs. Bigger companies can afford accountants but smaller businesses and freelancers are forced to find ways to minimize costs for obvious reasons. So managing their bookkeeping themselves is one of the options.

However, doing this is difficult for 2 reasons – it is time consuming and mundane. Also, it is hard for someone without an accounting background to manage these financial matters. There are these tough accounting terms and procedures. Even for someone who is acquainted with accounts, this takes time. Plus there are updates to tax rules and regulations; they have to keep a really good track of these in order to ensure that their books are up-to-date. This in itself is a huge chore. So a lot of business owners end up spending sleepless nights and extended work days in order to meet these requirements.

But this cannot go for long, can it? Also, this is not worth all that trouble. As they say, there is no free lunch. If you are trying to save costs on the bookkeepers’ fee, you are paying for it by sacrificing your family time – but is it really worth all the trouble?

If you are looking for an easy way out of this, you can consider outsourcing your bookkeeping activities. There are several bookkeeping outsourcing firms that specialize in this area. They take excellent data security measures, hire experienced accountants and have years of experience. They are also acquainted with a range of accounting software such as QuickBooks, Sage, PeachTree and so on. You also save on overhead costs this way. So, hire virtual assistants for your office bookkeeping requirements right away. You have nothing to lose.

Improve the Profit Margin of Your Business with Bookkeeping Outsourcing Services

It’s a desire for every business owner to reduce the financial onus all through the tax season in order to bring home the bacon. Isn’t it? But how does all that happen in a single night? Having a handful of books of accounts, funds, payrolls, invoices, ledgers, etc is all that you fell back in any of the ways. Even such a restoration has not effected the small businesses than biggies, now. How could this be possible?

Yeah, here is a simple solution that biggies has left over!

Neither to balk nor to spend more! But how could you improve the profit margin of your business? Quite simple. Bookkeeping Outsourcing Services is the only solution for the progress of your business regardless of the size and nature of the concern. There are many such Outsourcing service providers to care your books professionally. The qualified professionals who are skilled and experienced in dealing with the advanced accounting/bookkeeping software’s like Quickbooks, Handdy, Freshbooks, Sage, etc carries out their work from a server or a remote desktop connections.

But, what about the data? Is it confidential?

No more worries on the privacy of your data. Yes! Each of your business records are accessed with high-end security measures. Assuring 128-bit encryption for online data transfer, monitoring every single action performed. Bookkeepers set to work with your accounts, and gets the files updated the very next day or two. Online FT system insures each of the tasks.

You can now be satisfied with the dedicated team of professionals, quality work, increased cash-flow by reducing recurred calculation errors. In-house accounting would do the similar task, but still every one needs a quality work and assistance at the needed point.

Wait no more!

There isn’t anything new, but everything is groomed. Adapting the outsourcing business market pulls in numerous benefits. Practical decisions makes your business profitable. Look for a trusted bookkeeping outsourcing services to minimize your costs and experience the growth in cash-flow. Enjoy the top-notch service with the outsourced team!

Bookkeeping assistance at affordable rates

Have you ever wished you had someone else to do your bookkeeping?

There are several business owners who do their bookkeeping themselves and are really frustrated by it. Without an accounting background it is difficult to do your own accounts, operate software and solve problems. Yet many do, and as a result spend countless nights trying to tally them.

If that is the case, then you have to look for help. It is indeed very difficult to get good accountants at affordable rates. Usually in house bookkeepers and accountants are expensive. You have office space to consider, accountants’ salary, and similar other expenses that can be actually saved. If you can afford it, you could go for an in-house bookkeeper, or else you could consider other options as well.

One such good alternative is outsourcing. If you outsource your bookkeeping to virtual assistants in India or China etc, you actually have a good deal. Because of the difference in currency, time difference, you stand to benefit, so do they. There are many firms that do several business support tasks, such as accounting, bookkeeping, customer support and other secondary tasks. They are trained for the same, efficient and have a quick turnaround.

The only thing you must ensure is that they take sufficient data security measures. Some measures you can check for are 24/7 surveillance, privacy policies with employees, recognized certifications and so on. You could even talk to people who are going to be working for you and find out how good they would be. They are usually efficient in a wide range of bookkeeping and accounting software such as QuickBooks, PeachTree, Sage and so on. You can also have them trained in an application of your choice. One of such efficient bookkeeping outsourcing  service  provider is Integra Global Solutions. If you are looking for bookkeeping assistance at affordable rates, give them a call right away. You have nothing to lose. 

Getting rid of your bookkeeping troubles

Have you ever wondered if your business accounting troubles can be solved?

If you are having trouble maintaining your books of accounts all by yourself, you ought to look for other options. How much longer are you willing to put up with sleepless nights and frustrating calculations? Running a business is certainly challenging – there are important business decisions to be made, clients to meet and so on. Amidst all these tasks, it is tough for you to keep track of your day-to-day business expenses. As your business grows, so do your expenses. It might seem like a daunting task, nevertheless, it is important. Never underestimate the importance of accounts books. Updated books come in handy when you are getting ready for the tax season. If you do a lousy job of bookkeeping, be ready to pay a heavy penalty to the tax authorities.

So now we know the importance of bookkeeping. However, one cannot deny that it is a frustrating, annoying task. If you are not familiar with a lot of accounting terminology, it is even more difficult. Either you can hire an in-house bookkeeper or try and purchase accounting software. Both options have their pros and cons. Hiring a person saves time but costs you a fortune in terms of salary and other overhead costs. Software perhaps saves you a little money but it has its own cons such as constant software updates, difficulty to operate and so on. So we are back to square one.

This is when outsourcing comes into the picture, as this option saves you both time and money. It is often very rare to find such a win-win solution to problems. Countries like India and China are popular for the outsourcing industry – outsourcing to them is really a good option – the currency rates, time difference etc play to your advantage if you are in, say from the US. Make sure your outsourcing partner has taken enough security measures to protect your data – and you are on your way. Check out Integra’s bookkeeping outsourcing services right away – you have nothing to lose.

Is bookkeeping a nagging worry stopping you from focusing on key business tasks?

Small business owners have a lot of worries day in and day out, more so in the case of startups. There is just so much pressure on the business owner.  There are almost no small scale businesses that started with a big budget. Most are started on a shoestring budget with the business owner taking on as much work as possible.

When you are very good at one thing, good enough to think you will succeed in starting a business, it is your only focus. It is unlikely that you looked at learning other skills that a business owner would require. One such thing is bookkeeping.

Now as a business owner you have a whole lot of things to do. It is not unusual to find you doing the job of two or more people. However if there is one task that any business owner despises, it is bookkeeping. It is hard to understand, mundane and tedious. This is simply why it is avoided to the very last minute.

How much do classes help?
There are several classes for business owners to learn accounting software. However, only few come out of the course benefiting from it. This is because conventional accounting software is designed for accountants and bookkeepers, not laypersons. So if a business owner has to learn this, it requires a great deal of time and commitment. It is of no surprise that lots of business owners drop out from the course.

Here is what you can do to get a bookkeeper at your budget
There are several BPOs offering bookkeeping services. They are better than your local bookkeeper in so many ways. Firstly, they are cheap. It costs you less than half of what you would be paying for your local bookkeeper. You can pay them only for the number of hours they work.

The quality of bookkeeping services is also very high. This is by far the best bookkeeping solution you could ask for. 

Why choose bookkeeping outsourcing for your business

Have you ever wondered how to save time and costs on your bookkeeping?

There are many possible ways. You could hire a professional bookkeeper. You could go to an accounting firm and let them take care of your monthly bookkeeping. Or you could find a simple bookkeeping software app and manage your bookkeeping yourself.

But with each of these, there are more cons than pros. If the objective is to save costs, hiring a bookkeeper defeats the objective. Usually accountants and professional bookkeepers charge a fortune. If you are a small business owner or a freelance individual, that kind of service might be hard to afford for you.

On the other hand, if you choose to do the accounts yourself with the help of some accounting app, the objective of saving time is lost. True, they might be slightly better than spreadsheets, but with software, you have updates, and other configuration problems. Also, if you are someone without much of an accounting background, you would also not be able to understand a lot of terms used in the accounting software. It would be frustrating to go to the support team for everything and consulting manuals. So now you have effectively spent more time and money than you would have liked. That’s the opposite of what you are trying to achieve!

So is there a way out if this?

With bookkeeping outsourcing, there definitely is!

There are many outsourcing companies in places like India, where you have professional bookkeepers and accountants working for you at very affordable rates. They are trained to manage books of accounts and are acquainted with a lot of software apps.  Because of the difference in currency, you get to save a lot. There is a win-win situation. They get paid and you spend less money and gain more time to focus on your more important administrative tasks.  

Try bookkeeping outsourcing today – you have nothing to lose.

Concept, Meaning And Definitions Of Economics

Concept And Meaning Of Economics

Economics is a social science which studies and explains human behavior. But economics is a new social science as compared to other social sciences. Before 18th century economics was treated as part of Political Science, Ethics and Religion. The 18th century classical economists developed it as a separate social science. Economics is a science in the sense that the economists aim to develop theories of human behavior and to test them against the facts. 

It is customary to begin elementary economic theory with a definition of economics. Nothing, however, is settled by definition. A wide subject like economics cannot be restricted to a boundary fixed by definition. Economics extends to the subjects covered and methods used by the economists. Similarly, it also suggests that boundary of economics changes as the range of subject covered by economists changes.

Definitions Of Economics

The economic science has been differently defined by different economists. Each definitions lays stress on particular aspect of economic activities. The definitions of economics can be classified into three parts for convenience. They are wealth definition, welfare definition and scarcity definition of economics.

1. Wealth Definition Of Economics (Adam Smith)

The earliest definitions of economics were in terms of wealth. In 1776, Adam Smith, the father of economics and leader of classical economist published his epoch-making book " An enquiry into the Nature and Causes of Wealth of Nations",  popularly known as wealth of nations. It is obvious that Adam Smith considered his work to be an enquiry into the nature and causes of wealth of nations.In other words, he treated economics as a science of wealth. His followers like J.B Say. J.S Mill and F.A Walker supported him. J.S Mill defined economics as- " The practical science of the production and distribution of wealth". J.B Say called economics- " The science which treats of wealth". Walker defined it as- " That body of knowledge which relates to wealth".

Adam Smith was concerned with the broader aspects of wealth, the means by which the total volume of production could be increased. This has been a recent aim of economic policy. J.S Mill's definition is wider in the sense that he included problems of both production and distribution. These two factors influence the standard of living of people.

Adam Smith and his followers treated economics as a science of wealth. The term wealth was interpreted in a very normal sense to mean abundance money. It implies that the economists are expected to suggest ways and means of increasing the wealth of a country.

2.Welfare Definition Of Economics ( A. Marshall)

Alfred Marshall, a neo-classical economist, is the leader of welfare definition of economics. A.C Pigou and Edwin Cannan supported his view,The emphasis shifted from wealth to material welfare. It is because wealth is only a means to and end, end being human welfare. As opined by Marshall- " Economics is, on one side, a study of wealth; and on the other and more important side, a part of the study of man".

Marshall defined economics in these words- " Economics is a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life; it explains that part of individual and social action which is most closely connected with the attainment and with the use of the material requisites of well-being".

3.Scarcity Definition Of Economics (L. Robbins)

Lionel Robbins gave his own definition of economics in his book " Nature and Significance of Economics" published in 1932. His definition was supported by a long line of economists like Samuelson, Oskar Lange, Stigler, A,p Lerner, Cairncross and so on.

According to Robbins -" Economics is the science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses".

Supporting Robbins, Oskar Lange defined economics as" The science of administration of scares resources in human society".

The basic propositions of Robbins definition are as follows:

* Wants or ends are unlimited

* Means are scarce

* Scarce means have alternative uses

* The ends are of varying importance.

Are you worried that the bookkeeping costs are no longer manageable?

This is quite understandable if you are a small business owner or a self employed individual. Bookkeeping is simply not your thing. There are so many other things that warrant your attention and expertise, bookkeeping is sure to be last on the list.

There are of course certain business owners who effectively manage bookkeeping along with other tasks. They are perhaps exceptionally good with learning something new and committing to it or they have a lot more time than their peers.  Either way, you can be sure that the majority cannot manage their bookkeeping themselves without making a mess of it.

Hiring a local bookkeeper solves the problem but..
A bookkeeper comes like a welcome relief for someone who has been struggling with the task. All the pain is relived in an instant. The only problem is that the pain is back and more severe when you realize that bookkeeping costs are eating into your profits.

Here is a way to work around this
As unimaginable as it may seem, it is possible to get the expertise of a bookkeeper at a very affordable cost. This is through bookkeeping outsourcing. Do not be scared of the word. There a couple of credible BPOs that offer high quality bookkeeping services at rates that you will be happy with.

Such bookkeeping services will cost you less than half of hiring a bookkeeper in your city. Then there are additional advantages which include flexible hours. You pay only for the number if hours a bookkeeper works. This means you don’t have to pay salaries. Also during peak business season you can have the bookkeeper work longer hours without any hassle.

Bookkeeping outsourcing is definitely the way to affordable bookkeeping.

Concept And Meaning Of Unit Banking

Unit banking has one office. Generally, limited banking services are offered to customers by unit banking organization. Although unit banking organization has one banking office, it can spread cash counters in market place such as walk-in windows, automated teller machines, retail store point-of-sale terminals that are linked to the bank's computer system.
Unit banking is the oldest kind of banking organization most common in the world banking today. One reason for the comparatively large number of unit banks is the rapid formation of new banks. It can be established easily even in an age of electronic banking and mega mergers among industry leaders. Many customers still seem to prefer small banks, which get to know their customers well and often provide personalized services.
Most new banks start out as unit organization, because their capital, management and staffs are severely limited until the bank can grow and attract additional resources and professional staff. Later, they try to convert them into branch banking organization. However, economic and legal barriers to banks expanding geographically into new territory still exist in some places. Yet, most banks desire to create multiple service facilities-branch offices, electronic networks, and other service outlets. In competitive banking market, it is essential to open new markets and diversify geographically in order to lower risk and cost of banking services. If the surrounding economy weakens and people move away to other market areas, it becomes very risky in relying on a single office location, from which to receive customers and income.

Tired of managing your accounts books yourself?

If you are a business owner, you are probably tired of managing your books of accounts yourself. There are several things that you would have to do as a business owner – you have to meet with your clients, stakeholders, work with your staff to get things done – and bookkeeping is at the end of that list. True, bookkeeping is not exactly the most interesting task in the world, but it is important to do this so that your books of accounts are in order and ready by the end of the year for tax season. Otherwise, you are going to have to pay a heavy price in terms of penalty. 

If you are thinking of alternatives to managing your books yourself, the first that probably occurs to you is to find an in-house bookkeeper. It would be great to hire someone else just for this as it is like a huge weight off your shoulder – but then you end up having to pay a fortune for the bookkeeper’s salary. Apart from his salary, there are other overhead costs such as office stationary, computer, software installation, hiring and training and so on. We are talking about a lot of money here. If you are okay with spending so much, you can go ahead, but honestly, is it worth all the trouble?

You could at least look at other alternatives, the best of all being, outsourcing. Yes. If you outsource your bookkeeping to professionals in countries like India, you get unbelievable rates. It is really a win-win situation because of the difference in currency rates. They are happy, you are happy. The only thing you need to wary of is data-security measures. Make sure they have taken efforts such as 24/7 surveillance, privacy policies with employee etc, to protect your data. Once you select the right outsourcing partner, bookkeeping is nothing to worry about. Your accounts would be updated and prepared while you sleep. Give bookkeeping outsourcing a try, you have nothing to lose.

Are you a small business owner looking for a bookkeeping solution?

Being a small business owner is not easy. Yes you do have the privilege of being your own boss and making the big decisions, but that does not mean life is all comfortable. In fact, it can be quite the opposite when you take on all responsibility at the work place. It is quite natural to find small business owners doing the job of two or more people. Basically, it is smart to do whatever jobs you can such that you don’t have to take another employee on board.

This makes complete sense except that work can tire the hell out of the business owner. Now this is also bearable. What is worse is, having to do a task that you are unfamiliar with.  Most business owners are in misery when it comes to doing their bookkeeping. Let’s face it. It is a mundane task and which takes a lot of time. The software for the task is not necessarily easy either. End result? There are bookkeeping backlogs which have to be cleared before the accounting tasks can commence.  This invariably costs the business owner more than what it would have cost to hire a bookkeeper.

Here is what they should do

Bookkeeping services are right now being offered by outsourcing companies. The service is as good as the ones provided by your local bookkeepers. The only difference is that you are outsourcing it. Now there is no need to be scared by the word ‘outsourcing’. More and more small business owners are turning towards these professional bookkeeping services offered by outsourcing firms. 

It is greatly cost effective and is the perfect solution to the bookkeeping problem.

Services Offered By Modern Commercial Banks

Generally, modern commercial banks offer following services to customers or public:

1. Accepting Deposit

Accepting deposit from savers or account holders is the primary function of bank. Banks accept deposit from those who can save money, but cannot utilize in profitable sectors. People prefer to deposit their savings in a bank because by doing so, they earn interest.

2. Advancing Of Loans

Banks are profit oriented business organizations. So they have to advance loan to public and generate interest from them as profit. After keeping certain cash reserves, banks provide short-term, medium-term and long-term loans to needy borrowers. 

3. Discounting Of Bill Of Exchange

Bill of exchange is a negotiable instrument, which is accepted by the debtor, drawn upon him/her by the creditor and agrees to pay the amount mentioned on maturity. Discounting bill of exchange is another function of modern commercial bank. Under this, banks purchase bill of exchange from holder in discount after making some marginal deduction in the form of commission. The banks pay the deducted value to the holders when traders discount it into bank. 

4. Cheque Payment

Banks provide cheque pads to the account holders. Account holders can draw cheque upon bank to pay money. Banks pay for cheques of customers after formal verification and official procedures. .

5. Remittance

Remittance is a system, through which cash fund is transferred from one place to another. Banks provide the facilities of remittance to the customers and earn some service charge.

6. Collection And Payment Of Credit Instruments

In modern business, different types of credit instruments such as bill of exchange, promissory notes, cheques etc. are used. Banks deal with such instruments. Modern banks collect and pay different types of credit instruments as the representative of the customers.

7. Foreign Currency Exchange

Banks deal with foreign currencies. As the requirement of customers, banks exchange foreign currencies with local currencies, which is essential to settle down the dues in the international trade.

8. Consultancy

Modern commercial banks are large organizations. They can expand their function to consultancy business. In this function, banks hire financial, legal and market experts, who provide advices to customers in regarding investment, industry, trade, income, tax etc.

9. Bank Guarantee

Customers are provided the facility of bank guarantee by modern commercial banks. When customers have to deposit certain fund in governmental offices or courts for specific purpose, bank can present itself as the guarantee for the customer, instead of depositing fund by customers.

Concept And Meaning Of Bank

A bank is financial institution, which deals with money and credit. Bank accepts deposits from the public and mobilizes the fund to productive sectors. Bank also provides remittance facility to transfer money from one place to another. Generally, bank accepts deposits from business institutions and individuals , which is mobilized into productive sectors mainly business and consumer lending. So bank is also called a dealer of money. At present context, a bank may engaged in different types of functions such as remittance, exchange currency, joint venture, underwriting, bank guarantee, discounting bills etc. The modern bank refers to an institution having the following characteristics:

* Bank deals with money: it accepts deposits and advances loans.

* Bank also deals with credit: it has the ability to create credit by expanding its liabilities.

* Bank is commercial institution: it aims at earning profit.

Banks are the principal source of credit for millions of individuals and families and for many units of government. They are among the most important financial institutions in the economy. Moreover, for small local businesses to large dealers, banks are often the major source of credit to stock the shelves with merchandise. Banks grand more installment loans to consumer than any other financial institutions.

Banks are among the leading buyers of bonds and notes issued by government to finance public facilities, ranging from hospitals and football stadiums to airports and highways. Moreover, bank reserves are the principal channel for government economic policy to stabilize the economy.

Banks are the important sources of short-term working capital for businesses. They have become increasingly active in recent years in making long-term business loans for new plants and equipment. When businesses and consumers must make payments for purchase of goods and services, more often they use bank provided cheques, debit or credit cards, or electronic accounts connected to a computer network.

Bank is a intermediary which accepts deposits and grants loans. It offers widest menu of services of any financial institution. In fact, a modern bank performs such a variety of functions that it is difficult to give a precise and general definition of a bank.

Disadvantages Of Decentralization

Decentralization has the following drawbacks or disadvantages:

1. Decentralization Increases Expenditure

Decentralization needs qualified, competent and skilled managers at the middle and lower levels. They are to be paid remuneration on the basis of their qualification and experience. Besides, there is the possibility of duplication of effort, which unnecessarily may increase cost of production.

2. Decentralization Creates Conflict

In decentralization, the top level management puts more pressure on departmental managers to increase output and revenue. In such a situation, every department lays more emphasis on their own departmental goals instead of corporate goals. This may give rise to inter-departmental conflict and too much fragmentation creates problems in coordination and control.

3. Decentralization Is Unsuitable For Emergency Situation

In decentralization, lower and middle level managers are assigned authority only for routine decisions. Whenever they face complex and non-programmed problems they cannot take a decision due to limited authority.

4. Decentralization Maximizes Risk

In decentralization, decision making authority is delegated to the subordinate level. If subordinate level managers are unskilled and incapable, they may take wrong decision, which may increase the risks and result in losses.

5. Decentralization Is Unsuitable For Specialized Services

The concept of decentralization is not applicable in some types of services. It is not suitable for specialized nature of services like accounting, human resource, engineering, surgery etc.